X-rays cause mutations
Muller showed X-rays greatly increase mutation rates in fruit flies (1946 Nobel Prize).
As reported in: Muller (1927). Artificial Transmutation of the Gene. Science. doi:10.1126/science.66.1699.84
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Mutation breeding & directed evolution: uses in research
Also: radiation breeding, induced mutation, directed evolution, 2018 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Scientists speed up natural mutation, first with X-rays in plants and animals, later in test tubes for enzymes (directed evolution). Frances Arnold, George Smith and Gregory Winter shared the 2018 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Readiness: lab lab studies · prototype demonstrated objects · commercial products or buildings in real use · review summaries of other studies.
biology
Directed evolution of an enzyme
Chen and Arnold used repeated rounds of random mutation to make the enzyme subtilisin work in an unusual solvent.
Built / tested: evolved subtilisin
As reported in: Chen, Arnold (1993). Tuning the activity of an enzyme for unusual environments: sequential random mutagenesis of subtilisin E for catalysis in dimethylformamide.. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. doi:10.1073/pnas.90.12.5618
DNA shuffling
Stemmer introduced DNA shuffling, recombining gene fragments to evolve proteins rapidly in the lab.
As reported in: Stemmer (1994). Rapid evolution of a protein in vitro by DNA shuffling. Nature. doi:10.1038/370389a0
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Phage display
Smith displayed foreign protein pieces on the surface of virus particles, the basis of phage display used to evolve antibodies.
As reported in: Smith (1985). Filamentous Fusion Phage: Novel Expression Vectors That Display Cloned Antigens on the Virion Surface. Science. doi:10.1126/science.4001944
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Directed evolution (Nobel overview)
Arnold reviewed how directed evolution brings new chemistry to life.
As reported in: Arnold (2017). Directed Evolution: Bringing New Chemistry to Life. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. doi:10.1002/anie.201708408
food science
First radiation-induced crop mutations
Stadler induced mutations in barley with X-rays and radium, founding mutation breeding of crops.
Built / tested: mutant barley
As reported in: Stadler (1928). Mutations in Barley Induced by X-Rays and Radium. Science. doi:10.1126/science.68.1756.186
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